Notebook / Laptop Memory (RAM) Upgrade In 5
Minutes Or Less
by: Christophe Catesson
This article is set up in two parts, one part about RAM overview and a second
part about RAM upgrade. If you are curious on how the RAM works, you will find a
detail summary that should give you all the information that you need to know
about RAM, organization and speed. If you just want to read the how to upgrade
section, move on directly to part two Upgrade your laptop ram in 5 minutes or
less.
1 – RAM Overview
There are two big categories of random access memories:
* Dynamic memories (DRAM, Dynamic Random Access Module), not very costly. They
are in most cases used for the central memory of the computer
* Static memories (SRAM, Static Random Access Module), quick and expensive. SRAM
is notably used for cache memories of the processor
Functioning of the random access memory
The random access memory is constituted of hundred of thousand small condensers
storing charges. When it is loaded, the logical state of the condenser is equal
to 1, otherwise it belongs to 0, what means that every condenser represents one
bit of memory.
Given that condensers off-load, it is always necessary to recharge them in a
space of regular time called cycle of refreshment. Memory DRAM requires cycles
of refreshment for instance (Ns) is about 15 nanoseconds.
Every condenser is coupled with a transistor allowing to "recover « or to change
the state of the condenser. These transistors are lined up in form of matrix,
that is they achieve a hut memory (so called memory) by a line and a column.
So, for a memory of type DRAM, the time of access is of 60 nanoseconds (35ns of
delay of cycle and 25 ns of time of latency). On a computer, the time of cycle
corresponds contrary to the frequency of the clock, for instance for a computer
pulsated in 200 MHz, the time of cycle is 5 ns (1 / (200*106)).
As a result a computer having a frequency well brought up and using memories the
time of access of which is much longer than the time of cycle of the processor
must perform cycles of wait to access to the memory. In the case of a computer
pulsated in 200 MHz using memories of types DRAM (which the time of access is of
60ns), there are 11 cycles of wait as a cycle of transfer. The performances of
the computer are of as much diminished as there are cycles
Formats of Random Access Memory (RAM)
There are numerous types of random access memories. These all come in the form
of barrettes of memory attachable on the motherboard.
* SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module): it is about printed circuits among which
one of the faces has fleas of memory. There are two types of barrettes SIMM,
according to the number of connector cables (30 or 72)
* DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Modulates) are from memories 64 bits, what explains
why it is not necessary to match them. Barrettes DIMM have fleas of memory on
both sides of printed circuit and have also 84 connector cables on each side,
what endows them with a total of 168 brooches. They have bigger dimensions than
barrettes SIMM (130x25mm).
* RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module, conscripts also RD-RAM or DRD-RAM) are from
memories 64 bits developed by the society Rambus. They have 184 brooches. These
barrettes have two notches of location (détrompeurs), avoiding very risk of
confusion with the previous modules. Considering their well brought up speed of
transfer, barrettes RIMM have a thermal film made responsible for ameliorating
the clearing up of warmth. As in the case of DIMM, there are modules of smaller
size, called SO RIMM (Small Outline RIMM), intended for laptop computers.
Barrettes SO RIMM include only 160 brooches.
* DRAM (Dynamic RAM, dynamic RAM) is the type of memo most spread at the
beginning of the millennium. It is about a memory from which transistors are
lined up in a matrix according to lines and of columns. A transistor, coupled
with a condenser gives the information of a bit. 1 byte consisting of 8 bits, a
barrette of memory 256 Mb DRAM will contain 256 therefore * 2^10 * 2^10 = 256 *
on 1024 * on 1024 = 268 435 456 bytes = 268 435 456 * 8 = 2 147 483 648 bits = 2
147 483 648 transistors. A 256 Mb barrette has so in reality a capacity of 268
435 456 bytes, that is 268 Mb! These are memories from which the time of access
is 60 ns. On the other hand, accesses memory are made in general on data lined
up consecutively in memory. So the mode of access in gust (burst mode) allows to
achieve the three successive data in the first one without time of additional
latency.
* DRAM FPM to speed up accesses to DRAM, there is a technology, called
pagination consisting in achieving data located on the same column by changing
the address of the line only, what allows to avoid the repetition of the number
of column between the reading of each of the lines. They speak then about DRAM
FPM (Fast Page Mode). FPM allows to acquire time of access in the order of 70 -
80 nanoseconds for a frequency of functioning that can go from 25 to 33 Mhz.
* DRAM EDO (Extended Data Out, Goes out of data ameliorated sometimes also
called "hyper-page") appears in 1995. The technology used with this type of
memory consists in addressing the following column during the reading of the
data of a column. It creates an overlapping of accesses allowing to save time on
every cycle. The time of access to memory EDO is therefore about 50 - 60
nanoseconds for a frequency of functioning going 33 - 66 Mhz. So, RAM EDO, when
it is used in mode gust allows to acquire cycles of form 5-2-2-2, that is a
benefit of 4 cycles on the access to 4 data. As much as memory EDO did not
accept the upper frequencies in 66 Mhz, it disappeared in aid of SDRAM.
* SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM, translate synchronous RAM), appeared in 1997, allows
a reading of data synchronized with the bus of the card-mother, contrary to
memories EDO and FPM (qualified as asynchronous) having their own clock. SDRAM
allows therefore to free itself from time of wait owed to synchronization with
the card-mother. This one allows to acquire a cycle in mode gust of form
5-1-1-1, that is to say benefit of 3 cycles in comparison with RAM EDO. In that
way SDRAM is able of working with a cadenza going until 150 Mhz, allowing him to
acquire from time of access about 10 ns.
* DR-SDRAM (Direct Rambus DRAM or else RDRAM) is a type of memory allowing to
transfer data on a bus of 16 wide bits to a cadenza of 800Mhz, what confers on
him a band passer-by of 1,6 Go / s. As SDRAM, this type of memory is
synchronized with the clock of the bus to ameliorate exchanges of data.
* DDR-SDRAM (Double Dated Miss SDRAM) is a memory based on technology SDRAM,
allowing to double the rate of transfer of SDRAM with equal frequency. Reading
or writing of data in memory am accomplished on the basis of a clock. Standard
memory DRAM uses a method conscript SDR (Single Data Fails) consisting in
reading or writing data in every forehead going up. DDR allows to double the
frequency of reading / writings, with a clock pulsated in the same frequency, by
sending data in every forehead going up, as well as in every downward forehead.
Memory DDR has in general a commercial appellation of type PCXXXX where "XXXX "
represent the debit side in Mb / s.
* DDR2 (or DDR-II) allows to attain twice as well brought up debit sides as DDR
with equal external frequency. They speak about QDR (Quadruple Dated Fail or
quad-pumped) to indicate the method of reading and used writing. Memory DDR2
uses in effect two channels separated for reading and for writing, so it is able
of sending or of accepting twice more data than DDR.
2 - Upgrading Your Laptop RAM
upgrading a notebook memory is a specific simple process pending that you have
the right RAM and are somewhat delicate.
There are different types of RAM, and you must choose the one that is compatible
with your notebook computer. Memory is also a fragile, so you need to be very
cautious when installing it. You should ensure that the laptop is turned off and
disconnected from any exterior power supply. No lights should be visible.
It is a lot easier to install RAM on a laptop versus a desktop PC. Access to the
memory slots is via a panel generally located in the bottom of the laptop. Once
you have opened this panel with a small screwdriver you can see the existing
memory. you can check the exact type of memory that your Notebook currently
uses, because it is usually shown on the front of the memory strips and will be
evident when you open up the memory panel.
The memory strips are generally locked in with small clips on the ends of the
strips. To take out existing memory, simply flip the clips and then remove the
memory strips gently from their holding place. If you are simply adding memory,
and there is space available, just add the new memory, gently pushing it in to
ensure it is fully seated in the slots, and then push the clips to hold the new
memory in place.
Once you have replaced or added your Notebook computer memory, replace the
access panel, and then screw the panel back in place. Lastly, power up the
notebook, When the PC starts up, it will count the memory and tell you how much
RAM is loaded on your laptop.
As long as you have right memory, the whole operation should take less than 5
minutes, you can then enjoy your faster, less crash prone laptop.
About The Author
Christophe Catesson - Communication Manager for
http://www.bestlaptopsreviews.com . Laptop and notebook reviews and ratings,
most popular laptops, industry news, Forum, Q/A....
How
To Format A Hard Drive by:
Brian Maroevich
Here's how to format a hard drive
(Legal Stuff: We are not responsible for any damages, lost data, or anything
of the sort)...
If you have a computer, you surely
know what a hard drive is. If you don't have one, or simply don't know
what a hard drive is, then this article will begin with a short description
of the hard drive. Then we will cover formating a hard drive...
Step 1: What Is A Hard Disk Drive?
A hard disk drive in computing is
a type of storage device made up of hard disk platters, a spindle, read
and write heads read and write arms, electrical motors, and integrated
electronics contained inside an airtight enclosure.
Now you know what the hard drive
is. Let's stick to the point and start with the information on the title
of this article. How to format a hard disk drive....
Step 2...
First of all, you should have a reason
if you really want to learn how to format a hard drive. But don't forget
that formating a hard drive does NOT permanently delete your data!
Of course, when you format your hard
drive you think that the data is really deleted, but that is not the case.
The fact is that the data you have
"deleted" can be restored. Nonetheless, you should not experiment with
formatting a hard drive because you never know what may happen. Of course,
it also depends on the software you use, for example, there are such products
that will permanently delete the data you want and then you can continue
the process of how to format a hard drive.
Step 3...
In fact there is nothing so difficult
in it. You first need to decide what operating system you intend to load
after formating a hard drive.
It is best and easiest to use a boot
disk for that Operating System, such as MS Dos6.2 or Windows95b or Windows98SE.
You will need the proper Windows95/98 boot disk in order to load these
operating systems on the computer, else it will reject loading due to the
wrong Operating System on the computer.
Step 4...
Then you will have to insert your
boot disk in the floppy drive and start the computer.
Once the system has completed booting
and an A: prompt appears. You will need to type format C: /s and then press
Enter. The function of this command is to tell the system to format your
"C" drive and when it is finished to copy the system files to the drive.
The "/s" switches for "System". You
can format a different drive this way by using a different drive letter.
Step 5...
After that you will see on the screen
the following text: "WARNING, ALL DATA ON NON-REMOVABLE DISK DRIVE C: WILL
BE LOST! Proceed with Format (Y/N)?" and if you really want to continue,
type [Y] and then press Enter.
Your screen should display the size
of your drive and a countdown in percentage of formatting completed. Depending
on your computer's speed and the size of the drive it can take from a few
minutes to over 15 minutes.
When it reaches 100% complete, you
will see a new message: FORMAT COMPLETE. SYSTEM TRANSFERRED. This message
is to indicate that the files required to boot your computer from the hard
drive have been copied from the floppy to the hard drive.
The computer can now boot from the
hard drive without a boot disk in the floppy drive.
The last message that will appear
on your screen is the following: "Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for
none)?" You can either press any key to continue, or simply to press Enter.
And now, you can finally begin to load your Operating System.
Keep in mind that you can receive
an error message, which says "insufficient memory to load system files".
If you do receive such message, do not worry. It is caused by the lack
of a memory manager loaded at boot and your PC can only access the first
1mg of ram memory.
You can handle this situation with
two options. The first one is to omit the /s switch when formatting. You
should do it by typing this: FORMAT C: and then press Enter. Then when
the format is complete, manually add the system files to your hard drive
by using this command: SYS C: and press Enter again.
The second solution is to load a
memory manager in order to overcome this issue. If you don't have any you
can easily download one from one of the million sites on the Internet.
Step 6...
You see, we have finally reached
the end of How To Format A Hard Drive. and consequently – the end of this
article. Now you surely know how to format a hard drive. But, once again,
don't play with the commands if you are not serious about formating a hard
drive.
Even if the data is restorable you
may do something wrong to your computer. That is why, you should be careful!
And now, good luck!
©2004-2005 Brian Maroevich
http://www.cheap-computers-guild.com
About The Author
Brian Maroevich is founder of Cheap-Computers-Guild.com.
Brian is also an author, marketing consultant, computer enthusiast, and
athlete. Email: brian@cheap-computers-guild.com
Courtesy of http://www.ArticleCity.com/
Hard
Drive Selection
by: J A Carpunky
Perhaps the biggest mistake people
make when building their computer(s) is to underestimate the importance
of the hard disk drive (HDD). In our modern society, bigger is synonymous
with better, so when you go to buy a hard drive you look at how "big" it
is, its data capacity. But is that all you should be considering when buying
your hard drive?
Like every other component of your
computer, the HDD is far too complex a system to describe in any sort of
detail here, but hopefully by the end of this article you will know what
to look for when you go to buy your new hard drive.
There are 4 primary aspects to look
at in a hard drive (in order of importance):
-
Rotational frequency and average seek
time
-
Buffer size
-
Internal/external transfer rates
-
Capacity
Rotational frequency has become a large
selling point (5400/7200/10000/15000RPM) recently, so you shouldn't have
too much difficulty finding out what the rotational frequency of your HDD
is when you go to buy it. Now of course the faster it spins, the faster
it can read from the disk (there are other advantages also), but be aware
that the faster it spins, the more wear is put on the drive, and the more
likely it is to encounter errors and malfunctions later in life. Hard drives
are pretty much the only systems within your computer that have moving
parts (CD-ROM, floppy disk drives, and fans also have moving parts, but
they're all cheap and if they break you won't lose all the data you've
accumulated over the course of owning your computer, be sure to back up
your data regularly!). If you know anything about physics or engineering,
then you know that moving parts produce friction and wear, and a faster
spinning platter (the part that holds the data and spins) means more friction,
and therefore more wear on your drive. Of course the faster it spins the
faster it can read data from the platter. So what can you do? well again
you backup your data as much as possible and you get the fastest spinning
drive money can buy (which is 7200RPM for ATA devices (the sort you are
buying) and 15000RPM for SCSI and some Serial ATA devices (you might get
Serial ATA, that depends on your motherboard)). So look for a "7200RPM"
label on the drive you're thinking of getting, it's important!
The "buffer" I'm referring to is
the transfer buffer that temporarily stores data to read from or write
to the hard drive. The reason for this is that the bus (data channel between
the hard drive and the motherboard) can only handle so much information
at a time, and it takes a long time for the data to be found and retrieved
from a platter (random seek time), so it takes a big chunk of the requested
data and stores it in a very fast data buffer to be sent at the bus's convenience.
So with a larger buffer you can queue more data for transfer over the bus
without having to keep sending requests to slowly find more data from the
platters. Some newer drives come with as much as 8MB of buffer capacity,
but it is more common to see 2 or 4MB. Usually a drive with a large amount
will use that as a selling point and print it on the box/website, otherwise
you can assume it has a 2/4MB buffer. My advice is to find one with as
much as you can afford.
Now for the transfer rates you're
going to need to do some searching, the best way to find these numbers
is to go to the manufacturer's website and look at specification sheet
for the model you're looking to buy (actually this is the best way to get
all the information I've talked about so far). One thing to look out for
is that you may read something that says 133MB/s or ATA/133 or SATA150
or 150MB/s, and these are not the numbers you are looking for, those numbers
describe the bus connecting the hard drive to the motherboard, and are
theoretical peak numbers, which tell us virtually nothing. Also, if you
are buying a Maxtor, don't bother looking up actual transfer rates, as
Maxtor is apparently afraid to release such information. Not to say Maxtor's
are bad drives, actually Maxtor has risen to the top in terms of technical
support and they are much more willing to replace broken drives than some
other companies, which is important since some ridiculously large amount
(something like 10 or 15%) of hard drives are either dead on arrival or
die within the first few weeks of use. As with the last two points, when
looking at transfer speeds (if you can find them) always try to pick the
one with the highest numbers you can afford.
Notice that the first three of the
4 major aspects were all speed related? That was done intentionally to
give you a sense of the importance of speed in the hard drive, because
they are very very slow creatures, and for your gaming experience you don't
need an enormous hard drive so much as a fast one. To increase speed substantially
more you can set up a RAID, which is a network of hard drives which (in
RAID0 mode) share portions of the same data, such that accessing data takes
1/n time (n = number of hard drives attached) compared to 1 hard drive.
To do this you really need a hardware RAID chipset, which are commonly
included on higher-end mainboards.
Finally, capacity is an unnecessary
nicety. The smallest hard drives you can buy today that are still within
those higher speed classes are all about 30GB, which is more than enough
for your games. But since games are not everything, and if you happen to
be an iTunes member or like to download anime then you will really want
some extra space. So I would recommend getting something between 60 and
120GB, any more and you're going to be paying through your teeth, any less
and you might be looking to buy a supplementary hard drive in a couple
years. And, oh yeah, 300GB hard drives from Maxtor are out, but they are
comparatively slow, so I wouldn't recommend getting one for gaming, I like
to stick to single platter drives (40-100GB usually), as they produce less
heat and are less likely to break down on me.
That is really all you need to know
in order to make a good choice when upgrading your hard drive or buying
one for a new computer. Of course there are many other resources on the
web if you would like more detail on the inner working of hard drives.For
further information please visit http://www.computer-gaming-system.com
About The Author
J A Carpunky http://www.computer-gaming-system.com
Courtesy of http://www.ArticleCity.com/
How
To Quickly Fix Nagging DVD Drive Problems
by: Otis F Cooper
You really enjoy those dvd movies
and games and the last thing you need or want is to experience problems
with your dvd drive.
To prepare for the possibility of
having your dvd drive leaving you out in the cold one morning,we will dicuss
problems that may cause dvd failure as well as the procedures you should
take to correct these problems.
As with all drives,be sure to double
check the failure. If the dvd drive will not read the dvd, try running
another dvd in the drive. Make sure the dvd has no scratches and is clean.
Visually inspect the drive if the
drive is external and if the drive is enternal,check the computer.Check
to see if the computer has good ventilation to help keep it cool.Here are
the common dvd problems with their solutions.
DVD DRIVE HAS NO POWER
First..For external drives that have
no power,first check to see if anything or anyone has caused the power
cord to become unplugged.Rule out the wall outlet by plugging in another
device such as a radio and see if it plays.
Second...If you've proven the wall
outlet to be good,but you still don't have power,check the surge protector
for any signs of damage.If the surge protector is good,check the cord.
Third..If you're certain the surge
protector or wall outlet is providing power,double check the cord by plugging
it in a few times.If no power is present,you will have to replace the cord
or the drive itself.
Internal dvd drives receive their
power from the connector from the power supply.Try another connector to
the drive. if the internal dvd drive still does not receive power after
using another connector,the drive is faulty.
DRIVE HAS POWER BUT TRAY WON'T OPEN
You may experience the tray failing
to open.Should this happen,press the button a couple times to see if it
will open.If the tray fail to open,reboot your computer and try to open
the tray.
When rebooting the system,notice
the monitor to see if the drive is recognized by the computer.Some systems
will not display installed hardware during bootup.If this is the case,you
will have to access your BIOS to check if the dvd drive is being registered.
You can also try the manual eject
button on the drive to get it to open.Use something very small but firm
to press in the pinhole in front of the drive to open the tray.
Shut the computer off and unplug
it.Use something like a long paperclip to insert in the pinhole to open
the tray. The tray may open a couple inches and you can grab it with your
fingers to open it completely.
DRIVE IS NOT RECOGNIZED BY WINDOWS
Be sure the operating system is recognizing
the drive by clicking on My Computer.Windows XP will show "drives with
removable storage".If your drive is present, highlight the drive,right
click and select properties.Click on properties and you should see "this
drive is working properly".
If you see another message such as
"this drive is not working properly",you may be able to update the device
driver.If the drive is not present in My computer,reboot the computer and
access the cmos setup.
In the cmos setup,the dvd drive should
be present.The drive may not be properly installed or one of the cables
have become disconnected if the drive is missing
If you check the drive cables and
are certain they are connected correctly,it may be that the data cable
is faulty and the drive controller may be at fault.And we can't overlook
the fact that the drive itself may be bad.
DRIVE HAS POWER BUT WILL NOT READ
DVD
First..try another dvd since a dirty
or scratched dvd may not play.If the new dvd fail to play as well,check
to see if the operating system is recognizing the drive
Click on My Computer and highlight
the dvd drive.Right click and select properties.The statement "This device
is working properly" should be present.If not or you see another message,try
to update the device driver.
In the My Computer screen,highlight
the dvd drive,and select the Properties screen,select Drivers,and then
select update device driver.
Another cause may be the Windows
Registry is corrupt. You can use software utilities such as PC Bug Doctor
to repair your registry. Download this free repair utility at http://www.pcbugdoctor.com/download.html.
To make a backup of your registry
with Windows 98, just go to Start, select Run, enter scanregw and click
OK. This will run Scanregw.exe.
Restore your registry in Windows
98 by typing scanreg / restore at the Dos Prompt.You can also use.Winrescue
XP at http://www.superwin.com/index.htm
is a neat little utility for backup and restore of Windows XP.
The dvd drive or writer is an awesome
storage and data backup drive.Use it to the fullest to enjoy music,video,
audio,and more.Understand everything about this drive before something
goes wrong.
Should your audio die on you,check
the dvd to be sure it is not dirty or damaged.Look at the audio cable for
signs of looseness.Inspect this cable to be sure it is inserted in the
connector completely and that is indeed inserted in the correct connector.
If you have a dvd drive,take the
time to visit the support web site and download the latest device drivers
or patches to keep your drive running at peak performance.
About The Author
Otis F. Cooper is solely dedicated
to boosting the knowledge and confidence of every computer user that is
serious about knowing computers.Use his informative articles and videos
to understand every aspect about the PC. Read more about his formula for
pc training at http://www.ultimatepcrepair.com
allaboutpc@juno.com
Courtesy of http://www.ArticleCity.com/
